Jacobs, G. M. (1997). [Review of the books Multiple intelligences in the classroom and Multiple intelligences: Evaluating the theory; validating the vision]. RELC Journal, 28(2), 165-171.

Multiple Intelligences: Evaluating the Theory; Validating the Vision
Spencer Kagan
San Clemente, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning, 1997. Pp. vii, 145.

Reviewed by
George M Jacobs
SEAMEO Regional Language Centre
Singapore

Multiple Intelligences Theory
One part of the general trend toward learner-centredness in second language education (Larsen-Freeman, in press) has been a greater appreciation of differences among learners. Whereas behaviourism, the formerly dominant paradigm in educational psychology, posited general laws of learning which applied to any learner, e.g., to rats as well as humans and to babies as well as adults, the currently dominant paradigm, cognitivism, pays attention to differences. The differences we now factor into our instructional schemes include age, learning style, learning strategy, and cultural background, to name just a few.

The two books reviewed here consider another area of difference: intelligence. Since the beginning of this century, based in part on the work of French psychologist Alfred Binet, intelligence had been seen as a unitary concept represented by our score on an IQ test. Further, intelligence was also viewed as something innate and unchangeable. Howard Gardner and his colleagues at Harvard University’s Project Zero (website address: http://www.norfolk.k12.ma.us/MI/mizero.htm) began to challenge this notion in the early 1980s. Gardner’s book, Frames of Mind (1983) proposed that intelligence was actually much more varied, that rather than there being one intelligence, multiple intelligences existed. This view was in keeping with the cognitivist paradigm. Indeed, another of Gardner’s books, The Mind’s New Science, (19) presented an account of cognitivism.

Based on a set of criteria for determining what constitutes an intelligence, Gardner tentatively suggested seven possible intelligences:
1. Linguistic intelligence focuses on using words, both spoken and written.
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence involves seeing logical patterns and using numbers.
3. Spatial intelligence manifests itself in being able to use shapes, colours, graphics, and space.
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence concerns the use of the hands and the rest of the body.
5. Musical intelligence comprises the use of aspects of music, such as rhythm, timbre, pitch, and melody.
6. Interpersonal intelligence embraces interaction with and understanding of others.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence relates to understanding and controlling ourselves.

Key points to understand about MI (Multiple Intelligences) theory include:

1. Every human being has all the intelligences; it’s a matter of being less or more developed in a particular intelligence.
2. Intelligences are not static; they can be developed.
3. Intelligences seldom act alone; they interact.
4. Each intelligence is not a unitary phenomenon; each manifests itself in different ways, e.g., a person high in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is not necessarily good at all sports.

Armstrong’s Book
The 13 chapters of Armstrong’s book, for which Gardner wrote the foreword, focus mainly on classroom applications of MI theory. These utilize the seven intelligences described above, although recently Gardner and his colleagues have suggested two others. Chapter 1 presents MI theory. One point addressed is one I had asked myself: How does MI theory differ from work on learning styles and personality differences? Here is Armstrong’s (p. 14) answer, which I have to admit does not clarify the matter for me (italics as in original):

MI theory is a cognitive model that seeks to describe how individuals use their intelligences to solve problems and fashion products. Unlike other models that are primarily process oriented, Gardner’s approach is particularly geared to how the human mind operates on the contents of the world (e.g., objects, persons, certain types of sounds, etc.). ... Although we can identify relationships and connections [between MI theory and other models], our efforts may resemble those of the Blind Men and the Elephant: each model touching upon a different aspect of the whole learner.

Chapter 2 begins with the reasonable suggestion that before applying MI theory in our teaching, we teachers should first apply it to ourselves. Toward this end, Armstrong provides us ways of assessing and developing our own intelligences. Chapter 3 describes ideas for assessing our students intelligences. These include observing, collecting documents (e.g., samples of student work), looking at school records, talking with other teachers and parents, and asking the students themselves. In Chapter 4, Armstrong gives suggestions for teaching MI theory to students, e.g., simplified terms, such as "self smart" for intrapersonal intelligence; biographies of famous people strong in each of the intelligences, such as Mahatma Gandhi who was high in interpersonal intelligence; career days which highlight the intelligences valued in particular careers; and experiential activities.

MI theory and the curriculum is the focus of Chapter 5. Armstrong presents ideas for creating lesson plans which incorporate several intelligences. Chapter 6 concerns teaching strategies aimed at each of the seven intelligences, and ideas on classroom environment and classroom management are presented in Chapters 7 and 8, respectively. Ideas from these four chapters are presented in Table 1 below. Please recall that intelligences usually interact; thus, a particular activity will often involve more than one intelligence.

Chapter 9 concerns applications of MI theory to entire schools, not just to classrooms. Traditionally, schools have valued only linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences. Armstrong suggests ways for students to spend more time on the other five. Many of these suggestions involve linking schools with the surrounding communities. Chapter 10 takes on the issue of assessment, arguing that when we change instruction, we also have to change assessment. Key here is the idea of authentic assessment. Whereas traditional assessment used decontextualized settings and measures, e.g., multiple choice tests of discrete grammar items taken under test conditions, MI theory calls for assessment instruments which include all the intelligences and involve students in more realistic tasks in more naturalistic settings, e.g., videotapes of students working in collaborative groups and portfolios of student work over a period of time. Chapters 11, 12, and 13 cover special education, thinking skills, and other applications of MI theory, respectively. The book concludes with two lists of readings on MI and six short sample lessons involving a range of intelligences.

Kagan’s Book
Spencer Kagan is well known in cooperative learning, one of the methods Armstrong advocates for developing and utilizing interpersonal intelligence. Kagan’s book Cooperative Learning (1995) is a best-seller in the field of group instruction, and he was a keynote speaker at an international conference on cooperative learning held at RELC’s fellow SEAMEO centre, RECSAM (Regional Centre for Science and Mathematics), in April 1997. While in strong agreement with the overall thrust of work in MI, Kagan raises several issues which deserve our attention.

Kagan’s primary concern arises from fear that MI theory could be used to exclude students, tracking them into special streams. However, he also expresses other concerns. I will briefly list these others before returning to the focus of Kagan’s book.

1. Can individual intelligences be located in the brain or is brain functioning much more complex than that? Kagan calls this a battle of metaphors: does the brain operate as relatively independent Frames of Mind (the title of Gardner’s first book on MI) or, using the metaphor Kagan prefers, a Community of Neurons, all working interdependently.

2. Are there a relatively small number of intelligences, each constituting an identifiable entity or are there a huge number of intelligences, such that it makes little sense to speak of someone as, for example, musically intelligent, because this and other intelligences take so many forms? Kagan labels this issue "Multiple intelligences or a Multiplicity of intelligences" with the latter being his view.

3. Do the seven intelligences proposed by Gardner meet the criteria he laid out? Do other possible intelligences meet these criteria at least as well? Kagan says no to the first question and yes to the second. Gardner’s criteria are: possible isolation resulting from brain damage; existence of exceptional individuals, such as idiot savant and prodigies; a clear-cut developmental history with well-defined end states; evidence from evolution; evidence from psychometric measures; evidence from psychological tasks; distinct core operations; and potential for the use of a symbol system.

4. Is it possible to develop valid tests of the seven intelligences? Kagan argues that it is not, and even if it were, trying to administer so many tests to so many students would be unmanageable.

This issue of testing intelligences returns us to Kagan’s main worry about the use of MI theory, that it will be used to promote unequal education which segregates students. Could MI lead to separate classes or even separate schools for students who score high in particular intelligences in the hope that they will learn better with instruction which caters to their strongest intelligence? Such practices, Kagan asserts, lead to labeling, lowered self-esteem, decreased expectations of students by teachers, and diminished opportunities for students to develop in a well rounded manner.

After many chapters presenting his critique of MI theory, Kagan states his support for three visions which flow from the theory: (1) we should cater to student differences by teaching in a wide variety of ways; (2) we should help students develop all their multiplicity of intelligences; (3) we should celebrate the diversity that exists among students and help them see this as a resource not as a problem. Kagan concludes his book with a selection of cooperative learning techniques which match each of the original seven intelligences.

Conclusion
Both these clearly written books provide valuable ideas for teachers and other educationists. The areas of agreement far outweigh those of disagreement. Indeed, some of the criticisms which Kagan makes are differences of emphasis more than fundamental differences. For instance, Kagan’s view that a multiplicity of intelligences exist, rather than a relatively small number, is echoed by Gardner and Armstrong who acknowledge, as I mentioned above, that just because a person is high in one intelligence does not mean they are strong in every activity involving that intelligence.

MI theory is beginning to receive attention in second language education (Christison, 1995-1996; McInnis, 1997). Indeed, Armstrong was a keynote speaker at the 1997 International TESOL convention. (An audio tape of his talk is available at the RELC Library and through TESOL.) Further, the idea that we need to teach in a variety of ways has long been espoused by second langauge educationists, e.g., teaching via songs and chants

In addition to informing us about how to teach better, MI theory also inspires us to recognize and nurture the varied abilities of all our students and everyone else with whom our lives intersect. On that note, I will close this review with a story told in Campbell, et al. (1992, cited in Kagan’s book).

Early in primary school, Paula was assessed as learning disabled. By age ten, she had fallen several grade levels behind others her age. Disliking school and disliking herself, she attempted suicide. The next school year, Paula’s new teacher observed the graceful way that she moved and thought that perhaps she could benefit from learning kinesthetically. When she asked Paula to create letters via movement, Paula readily did that and more, creating dances showing the alphabet, her name, and whole sentences! By the end of that school year, Paula was reading and writing at the same level as her peers and by the following year was getting above average grades!

Armstrong, T. 1993. 7 kinds of smart: discovering and using your natural intelligences. New York: Plume/Penguin.

Armstrong, T. 1997. 7 kinds of smart. Paper presented at the International TESOL convention, Orlando, Florida.

Campbell, L., Campbell, B., and Dickinson, D. 1992. Teaching and learning through multiple intelligences. Stanwood, WA: Campbell & Associates.

Christison, M.A. 1995-1996. Multiple intelligences & second language learners. The Journal of the Imagination in Language Learning 3. 8-13.

Gardner, H. 19. The mind’s new science.

Gardner, H. 1983). Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Kagan, S. 1995. Cooperative learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (in press). Expanding roles of learners and teachers in learner-centered instruction. Learners and language learning, ed. by W.A. Renandya and G.M. Jacobs. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.

McInnis, D. Multiple intelligences in peace education. Paper presented at the International TESOL convention, Orlando, Florida. [dmcinnis@s.soka.ac.jp]